DNA vaccines against tumor growth and methods of use thereof

ABSTRACT

A DNA vaccine suitable for eliciting an immune response against cancer cells comprises a polynucleotide construct operably encoding an a Fra-1 protein, such as a polyubiquitinated human Fra-1 protein, and IL-18, such as human IL-18, in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In a preferred embodiment, the polynucleotide construct is operably incorporated in an attenuated bacterial vector, such as an attenuated  Salmonella typhimurium , particularly a doubly attenuated aroA −  dam −    S. typhimurium . Transformed host cells, methods of inhibiting tumor growth, of vaccinating a patient against cancer, and of delivering genetic material to a mammalian cell in vivo are also described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/574,752 filed on Apr. 6, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,569,552, which isa U.S. National Stage of PCT/US2004/033137 filed on Oct. 7, 2004, whichclaims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/509,457filed on Oct. 8, 2003.

GOVERNMENTAL RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under Department ofDefense Contract No. DAMD17-02-1-0562 and DAM17-02-1-0137, and NationalInstitutes of Health Contract No. CA 83856. The United States governmenthas certain rights in this invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates generally to DNA vaccines encoding suitablemolecules effective for eliciting an immune response against tumorcells. More particularly this invention relates to DNA vaccines encodinga Fra-1 protein and IL-18. This invention also relates to methods ofusing the DNA vaccines to inhibit tumor growth and immunize patientsagainst cancer.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignancies in women, and isthe leading cause of death among women between the ages of 40 and 55years in the United States. During the last two decades, this cancer hasbeen studied intensively, and recently new preventive measures andtherapies have emerged, especially immunological and genetic treatmentsadministered as adjuvant therapy after surgery, radiation, andchemotherapy. Biotherapies have produced successful results in mice withmammary carcinoma, particularly with cellular vaccines, DNA vaccines,recombinant proteins, and adoptive immunotherapy.

The progression of breast cancer is often accompanied by changes in geneexpression patterns in cells of growing carcinomas, resulting in highlytumorigenic and invasive cell types. Thus, AP-1 transcription factor(Activating Protein-1) belongs to a group of factors, which define tumorprogression and regulate breast cancer cell invasion and growth, as wellas resistance to anti-estrogens. In addition, Fra-1 (Fos-relatedantigen-1), a transcription factor belonging to the AP-1 family, isoverexpressed in many human and mouse carcinoma cells, including thoseof thyroid, kidney, esophagus and breast. Overexpression of Fra-1 inepithelial carcinoma cells greatly influences their morphology, motilityand invasiveness, and activates the transcription of a number of genes.Overexpression of this transcription factor also correlates withtransformation of epithelial tumor cells to a more invasive phenotype,and a close, specific association of Fra-1 expression with highlyinvasive breast cancer cells has been reported. Taken together, thesefindings suggest that overexpressed Fra-1 can serve as a potentialtarget for active vaccination against breast cancer.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a potent immunoregulatory cytokine that wasinitially described as an IFN-γ inducing factor. This cytokine alsoenhances cytokine production of T cells and/or natural killer (NK) cellsand induces their proliferation and cytolytic activity. Tumor cellsengineered to produce IL-18 are less tumorigenic and systemicadministration of IL-18 reportedly afforded considerable therapeuticactivity in several murine tumor models. In addition, IL-18 enhancescellular immune mechanisms by upregulating major histocompatibilitycomplex (MHC) expression and by favoring the differentiation of CD4⁺helper T cells towards the Th1 subtype. In turn, Th1 cells secrete IL-2and IFN-γ, which facilitate the proliferation and/or activation of CD8⁺cytotoxic T lymphocytes, NK cells and macrophages, all of which cancontribute to tumor regression. In addition, IL-18 is a novel inhibitorof angiogenesis, sufficiently potent to suppress tumor growth bydirectly inhibiting fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2)-inducedendothelial cell proliferation. Recombinant IL-18 has been evaluated asa biological “adjuvant” in murine tumor models, and its systemicadministration induced significant antitumor effects in several tumormodels.

Asada et al. have reported significant antitumor effects utilizing anautologous tumor cell vaccine engineered to secrete interleukin-12(IL-12) and IL-18 in a viral vector (Molec. Therapy 2002, 5(5):609-616).

Vaccines have been utilized to provide a long term protection against anumber of disease conditions by very limited administration of aprophylactic agent that stimulates an organism's immune system todestroy disease pathogens before they can proliferate and cause apathological effect. Various approaches to vaccines and vaccinations aredescribed in Bernard R. Glick and Jack J. Pasternak, MolecularBiotechnology, Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA, SecondEdition, ASM Press pp. 253-276 (1998).

Vaccination is a means of inducing the body's own immune system to seekout and destroy an infecting agent before it causes a pathologicalresponse. Typically, vaccines are either live, but attenuated,infectious agents (virus or bacteria), or a killed form of the agent. Avaccine consisting of a live bacteria or virus must be non-pathogenic.Typically, a bacterial or viral culture is attenuated (weakened) byphysical or chemical treatment. Although the agent is nonvirulent, itcan still elicit an immune response in a subject treated with thevaccine.

An immune response is elicited by antigens, which can be either specificmacromolecules or an infectious agent. These antigens are generallyeither proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, or glycolipids, which arerecognized as “foreign” by lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells.Exposure of both types of lymphocytes to an antigen elicits a rapid celldivision and differentiation response, resulting in the formation ofclones of the exposed lymphocytes. B cells produce plasma cells, whichin turn, produce proteins called antibodies (Ab), which selectively bindto the antigens present on the infectious agent, thus neutralizing orinactivating the pathogen (humoral immunity). In some cases, B cellresponse requires the assistance of CD4 helper T cells.

The specialized T cell clone that forms in response to the antigenexposure is a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), which is capable of bindingto and eliminating pathogens and tissues that present the antigen(cell-mediated or cellular immunity). In some cases, an antigenpresenting cell (APC) such as a dendritic cell, will envelop a pathogenor other foreign cell by endocytosis. The APC then processes theantigens from the cells and presents these antigens in the form of ahistocompatibility molecule:peptide complex to the T cell receptor (TCR)on CTLs, thus stimulating an immune response.

Humoral immunity characterized by the formation of specific antibodiesis generally most effective against acute bacterial infections andrepeat infections from viruses, whereas cell-mediated immunity is mosteffective against viral infection, chronic intracellular bacterialinfection, and fungal infection. Cellular immunity is also known toprotect against cancers and is responsible for rejection of organtransplants.

Antibodies to antigens from prior infections remain detectable in theblood for very long periods of time, thus affording a means ofdetermining prior exposure to a pathogen. Upon re-exposure to the samepathogen, the immune system effectively prevents reinfection byeliminating the pathogenic agent before it can proliferate and produce apathogenic response.

The same immune response that would be elicited by a pathogen can alsosometimes be produced by a non-pathogenic agent that presents the sameantigen as the pathogen. In this manner, the subject can be protectedagainst subsequent exposure to the pathogen without having previouslyfought off an infection.

Not all infectious agents can be readily cultured and inactivated, as isrequired for vaccine formation, however. Modern recombinant DNAtechniques have allowed the engineering of new vaccines to seek toovercome this limitation. Infectious agents can be created that lack thepathogenic genes, thus allowing a live, nonvirulent form of the organismto be used as a vaccine. It is also possible to engineer a relativelynonpathogenic organism such as E. coli to present the cell surfaceantigens of a pathogenic carrier. The immune system of a subjectvaccinated with such a transformed carrier is “tricked” into formingantibodies to the pathogen. The antigenic proteins of a pathogenic agentcan be engineered and expressed in a nonpathogenic species and theantigenic proteins can be isolated and purified to produce a “subunitvaccine.” Subunit vaccines have the advantage of being stable, safe, andchemically well defined; however, their production can be costprohibitive.

A new approach to vaccines has emerged in recent years, broadly termedgenetic immunization. In this approach, a gene encoding an antigen of apathogenic agent is operably inserted into cells in the subject to beimmunized. The treated cells are transformed and produce the antigenicproteins of the pathogen. These in vivo-produced antigens then triggerthe desired immune response in the host. The genetic material utilizedin such genetic vaccines can be either a DNA or RNA construct. Often thepolynucleotide encoding the antigen is introduced in combination withother promoter polynucleotide sequences to enhance insertion,replication, or expression of the gene.

Polynucleotide vaccines (also referred to as DNA vaccines) encodingantigen genes can be introduced into the host cells of the subject by avariety of expression systems. These expression systems includeprokaryotic, mammalian, and yeast expression systems. For example, oneapproach is to utilize a viral vector, such as vaccinia virusincorporating the new genetic material, to innoculate the host cells.Alternatively, the genetic material can be incorporated in a plasmidvector or can be delivered directly to the host cells as a “naked”polynucleotide, i.e. simply as purified DNA. In addition, the DNA can bestably transfected into attenuated bacteria such as Salmonellatyphimurium. When a patient is orally vaccinated with the transformedSalmonella, the bacteria are transported to Peyer's patches in the gut(i.e., secondary lymphoid tissues), which then stimulate an immuneresponse.

Polynucleotide vaccines provide an opportunity to immunize againstdisease states that are not caused by traditional pathogens, such asgenetic diseases and cancer. Typically, in a genetic cancer vaccine,antigens to a specific type of tumor cell must be isolated and thenintroduced into the vaccine. An effective general vaccine against anumber of cancers can thus entail development of numerous individualvaccines for each type of cancer cell to be immunized against. There isan ongoing need and desire, therefore, for vaccines that can stimulate ageneral immune response against a variety of cancer cells.

The present invention fulfills the ongoing need for vaccines that canstimulate a general immune response against cancer cells, such as breastcancer cells, by providing a DNA vaccine encoding a Fra-1 protein andIL-18 in a single host vector.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A DNA vaccine effective for eliciting an immune response against cancercells comprises at least one polynucleotide construct operably encodinga Fra-1 protein and IL-18 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.Preferably, the polynucleotide construct is operably incorporated in ahost vector such as an attenuated bacterial vector (e.g, an attenuatedSalmonella typhimurium vector). The DNA vaccine includes apolynucleotide that encodes a Fra-1 protein, such as a human or murineFra-1 protein, together with a polynucleotide that encodes IL-18, suchas human or murine IL-18. In a particularly preferred embodiment thepolynucleotide construct encodes a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein, suchas polyubiquitinated human Fra-1. Optionally, the vaccine also comprisesa polynucleotide construct operably encoding IL-12.

The polynucleotide constructs can be a single DNA or RNA constructencoding the Fra-1, IL-18, and optionally IL-12. Alternatively thevaccine can comprise two or more polynucleotide constructs, for example,one construct encoding Fra-1, preferably polyubiquitinated Fra-1,another construct encoding IL-18, and optionally a third constructencoding IL-12. When more than one construct is utilized, preferably theconstructs are operably incorporated into the same host vector.

The proteins and other gene products expressed by the DNA vaccines ofthe present invention have immunogenic and antigenic properties thatstimulate an immune response against cancer cells, particularly breastcancer tumor cells in vaccinated patients, preferably human patients.

Preferred host vectors are attenuated bacterial vectors, such asattenuated Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi, Shigella, Bacillus,Lactobacillus, BCG, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, andCampylobacter. More preferably the host vector is an attenuatedSalmonella typhimurium vector, most preferably a doubly attenuated aroA⁻dam⁻ S. typhimurium.

In one method aspect of the present invention, a DNA vaccine is utilizedto provide long term inhibition of tumor growth in a vaccinated patient.A DNA vaccine comprising a polynucleotide construct operably encoding aFra-1 protein, preferably a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein and IL-18 ina pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is administered to a patient inneed of inhibition of tumor growth. The vaccine is administered in anamount that is sufficient to elicit an immune response against tumorcells. Preferably the polynucleotide construct is operably incorporatedin an attenuated bacterial vector such as an attenuated S. typhimurium.Preferably, the vaccine is administered orally to a patient sufferingfrom a cancer, such as breast cancer, or a patient having an increasedrisk for developing such a cancer.

In another method aspect, a mammal is vaccinated against cancer cells toafford long term protection against developing the cancer. A DNA vaccinecomprising a polynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein,preferably a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein and IL-18 in apharmaceutically acceptable carrier, is administered to a mammal. Thevaccine elicits a protective immune response in the mammal, whichprovides long term prevention of cancers for which Fra-1 is an antigen.

Yet another method aspect of the present invention is in vivo deliveryof genetic material to a mammal. The method involves orallyadministering to a mammal doubly attenuated aroA⁻ dam⁻ S. typhimuriumcells comprising a polynucleotide construct operably encoding atherapeutically useful gene product. The therapeutically useful geneproduct preferably is a tumor antigen capable of eliciting an immuneresponse in the mammal against tumor cells or an immune stimulatingmolecule capable of stimulating the immune system of the mammal. In apreferred embodiment, the doubly attenuated aroA⁻ dam⁻ S. typhimuriumcells comprise both a tumor antigen and an immune stimulating molecule.

The present invention also encompasses host cells transformed with apolynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein and IL-18, aswell as plasmid vectors comprising a polynucleotide construct operablyencoding a Fra-1 protein and IL-18.

The vaccines and transformed cells of the present invention are usefulfor treatment and prevention of various types of cancer. A patientsuffering from breast cancer, or an increased risk of breast cancer, canparticularly benefit from immunization by the vaccines of the presentinvention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the Drawings, FIG. 1A schematically depicts the coding sequence offull-length, polyubiquitinated murine Fra-1 or IL-18, inserted into thepIRES plasmid (pUb-Fra-1 or pIL-18).

FIG. 1B depicts detection of protein expression by pUb-Fra-1 and pIL-18,demonstrated by Western blotting. Blots of cell lysates are shown fromCOS-7 cells transfected with either pUb-Fra-1 (lane 1) or pIL-18 (lane2) as well as from a culture supernatant of pIL-18 transfected COS-7cells (lane 3).

FIG. 1C demonstrates bioactivity of IL-18 (ng/ml), determined by ELISAin supernatants of KG-1 lymphoma cells that had been transfected withpIL-18;

FIG. 1D shows expression of EGFP activity in Peyer's Patches, determinedin 6 week old Balb/c mice immunized by oral gavage with about 10⁸ cellsper mouse of aroA⁻ dam⁻ bacteria transformed with pEGFP (S.T-GFP). Micewere sacrificed about 24 hours later and a fresh specimen of smallintestine was taken after thoroughly washing with PBS. Fluorescenceexpression of EGFP was detected by confocal microscopy (right panel).H&E staining of mouse Peyer's Patches is also shown (left panel).

FIG. 2A shows suppression of pulmonary metastases of D2F2 breastcarcinoma. Lung metastases were induced by intravenous injection ofabout 5×10⁵ D2F2 cells about 1 week after the last vaccination. Theexperiment was terminated about 28 days after tumor cell inoculation andthe extent of tumor foci on the lung surface determined. Results areexpressed as metastatic score, i.e., the % lung surface covered by fusedtumor foci. 0=0%; 1=<20%; 2=20-50%; and 3=>50%.

FIG. 2B depicts tumor growth, analyzed in mice challenged subcutaneouslywith about 1×10⁶ D2F2 tumor cells about 1 week after the lastvaccination in each of respective treatment or control groups. Tumorgrowth was determined by microcaliper measurements and tumor volume wascalculated according to the equation: 0.5×width²×length;

FIG. 2C illustrates survival curves representing results for 8 mice ineach of the respective treatment and control groups. Surviving mice weretumor free unless otherwise stated;

FIG. 3 depicts cytotoxic activity of splenocytes isolated from Balb/cmice after vaccination with experimental or control DNA vaccines about 2weeks after challenge with D2F2 tumor cells and analyzed for theircytotoxic activity in a ⁵¹Cr-release assay at different E:T cell ratios.The top panel depicts specific lysis mediated by CD8⁺T cells againstD2F2 target cells (▴), which was blocked by an anti MHC-class I Ab(H-2K^(d)/H-2D^(d)) (▪). The bottom panel depicts lysis mediated by NKcells (●) against Yac-1 target cells. Each value shown represents themean of 8 animals.

FIG. 4 shows a PACS analysis of splenocytes from Balb/c mice immunizedwith the DNA vaccine, then challenged with tumor cells. Two-color flowcytometric analyses were performed with single-cell suspensions ofsplenocytes. Anti-CD25, CD69, CD28 and CD11a Ab were used in PEconjugated form in combination with FITC-conjugated anti-mouse mAbdirected against CD8⁺T cells. PE-labeled anti-CD8 and anti-CD4 Ab wereused in combination with FITC-conjugated anti-mouse mAb CD3. Each valuerepresents the mean for 4 mice.

FIG. 5 shows FACS analysis of splenocytes with anti-DX5 mAb,demonstrating the activation of NK cells after DNA vaccination. Theexperimental setting is similar to that of FIG. 4. Percentages refer tothe percentage of cells in an assay gated for DX5 expression. Arepresentative histogram plot is shown for each group with the valuedepicting the mean for 4 mice.

FIG. 6 shows that the pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 vaccine of the invention enhancedthe expression of costimulatory molecules. In a similar evaluation tothat depicted in FIG. 4, two-color flow cytometric analyses wereperformed with single-cell suspensions prepared from mouse splenocytesobtained about 30 days after tumor cell challenge. Splenocytes werestained with FITC-labeled anti-CD11c Ab in combination withPE-conjugated anti-CD80 or CD86 Ab. Shown is the percent fluorescence ofcell surface expressions of these two costimulatory molecules in arepresentative mouse. The data from each group (n=4) is displayed in thebar graph (mean+SD).

FIG. 7 demonstrates cytokine expression from splenocytes obtained about2 weeks after tumor cell challenge and stained with FITC-anti CD4 or CD8Ab. Cells were fixed, permeabilized and subsequently stained with PElabeled anti-IFN-γ or anti IL-2 Ab to detect the intracellularexpression of these cytokines. A representative dot plot is shown foreach group with the value depicting the mean for 8 mice.

FIG. 8A shows a representative ELISPOT assay as spot formation per wellinduced by empty vector (a),pUb(b), pUb-Fra-1(c), pIL-18(d) andpUb-Fra-1/pIL-18(e).

FIG. 8B shows the mean spot distribution of each well in eachexperimental and control group for the ELISPOT assay shown in FIG. 8A(n=4, mean+SD).

FIG. 9 depicts photomicrographs of Matrigel implants from Balb/c mice(n=8) vaccinated 3 times at about 2 week intervals with doublyattenuated Samonella typhimurium vaccines. About two weeks after thelast vaccination, Matrigel (about 0.5 ml) containing murine FGF-2 (about400 μg) and D2F2 cells (about 1×10⁵) were subcutaneously implanted intothe sternal region of mice and plugs removed for evaluation about 6 dayslater. Quantification of vessel growth and staining of endothelium wasdetermined by fluorimetry or confocal microscopy, respectively, usingFITC-labeled Isoletin B4. Matrigel implants were harvested from mice andphotographed with the use of confocal microscope. The line and arrows(a-e) indicate the inside borders of the Matrigel plug. Matrigel wasimplanted into mice, vaccinated with empty vector (a),pUb (b),pUb-Fra-1(c), pIL-18 (d),pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18(e). The average fluorescence ofMatrigel plugs from each group of mice is depicted by the bar graphs(P<0.05) (n=4; mean+SD).

FIG. 10 depicts the reported DNA nucleic acid sequence (SEQ IL NO: 1)and corresponding protein amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) of humanFra-1.

FIG. 11 depicts the DNA nucleic acid sequence (SEQ IL NO: 3) andcorresponding protein amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4) of murineFra-1.

FIG. 12 depicts the reported DNA nucleic acid sequence (SEQ IL NO: 5)and corresponding protein amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) of humanIL-18.

FIG. 13 depicts the DNA nucleic acid sequence (SEQ IL NO: 7) andcorresponding protein amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 8) of murineIL-18.

FIG. 14 depicts the DNA nucleic acid sequence (SEQ IL NO: 9) andcorresponding protein amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 10) of ubiquitin.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The term “polynucleotide construct” as used herein and in the appendedclaims means a synthetic DNA or RNA structure that can be transcribed intarget cells to express a gene product. The construct can comprise alinear nucleic acid, such as a purified DNA, purified RNA, and the like,or DNA incorporated in a plasmid vector. Preferably, the polynucleotideis incorporated in a viral or bacterial vector, more preferably anattenuated viral or bacterial vector that is non-pathogenic, mostpreferably in an attenuated bacterial vector.

The term “gene product” and grammatical variations thereof, as usedherein, includes proteins and polypeptides produced in a cell by geneexpression processes.

As used herein, the term “immunity” refers to long term immunologicalprotection against the virulent form of the infectious agent or tumorantigen. The term “immunization” refers to prophylactic exposure to anantigen of a pathogenic agent derived from a non-virulent source, whichresults in immunity to the pathogen in the treated subject.

The term “antibody”, as used herein, refers to a molecule that is aglycosylated protein, an immunoglobulin, which specifically binds to anantigen.

The term “antigen”, as used herein, denotes an entity bound by anantibody or receptor. The term “immunogen”, as used herein denotes anentity that induces antibody production or binds to the receptor. Wherean entity discussed herein is both immunogenic and antigenic, referenceto it as either an immunogen or antigen is made according to itsintended utility.

The term “conservative substitution”, as used herein, denotesreplacement of one amino acid residue by another, biologically similarresidue. Examples of conservative substitutions include the substitutionof one hydrophobic residue such as isoleucine, valine, leucine ormethionine for another, or the substitution of one polar residue such asarginine for lysine and vice versa, glutamic acid for aspartic acid viceversa, or glutamine for asparagine and vice versa, and the like.

The term “substantially corresponds” in its various grammatical forms asused herein relating to peptide sequences means a peptide sequence asdescribed plus or minus up to three amino acid residues at either orboth of the amino- and carboxy-termini and containing only conservativesubstitutions along the polypeptide sequence.

The term “residue” in reference to amino acids, proteins andpolypeptides is used herein interchangeably with the phrase amino acidresidue. In reference to polynucleotides and nucleic acids the term“residue” is used interchangeably with the phrase nucleotide residue.

The term “polyubiquitinated” and grammatical variations thereof, inreference to a Fra-1 protein means that the Fra-1 is a fusion proteinwith four (4) ubiquitin molecules. A polynucleotide encoding ubiquitinand the corresponding amino acid sequence of ubiquitin are shown in FIG.14.

Preferably, a polynucleotide construct utilized in the vaccines andtransfected host cells of the present invention are also operably linkedto regulatory elements needed for gene expression, which are well knownin the art.

Preferably the polynucleotide construct, such as a DNA construct isoperably incorporated in an expression vector, such as the pIRESexpression vector available from Invitrogen, Inc., Carlsbad, Calif.Other suitable expression vectors are commercially available, forexample, from BD Biosciences Clonetech, Palo Alto, Calif. Onceincorporated in the expression vector, the DNA can be introduced into ahost vector such as a live, attenuated bacterial vector by transfectingthe host cell with the expression vector.

Useful polynucleotide constructs preferably include regulatory elementsnecessary for expression of polynucleotides. Such elements include, forexample, a promoter, an initiation codon, a stop codon, and apolyadenylation signal. In addition, enhancers are often required forexpression of a sequence that encodes an immunogenic target protein. Asis known in the art, these elements are preferably operably linked tothe sequence that encodes the desired protein. Regulatory elements arepreferably selected that are compatible with the species to which theyare to be administered.

Initiation codons and stop codons are preferably included as part of anucleotide sequence that encodes the Fra-1 protein and IL-18 in agenetic vaccine of the present invention. The initiation and terminationcodons must, of course, be in frame with the coding sequences for theFra-1 protein and IL-18.

Promoters and polyadenylation signals included in a vaccine of thepresent invention are preferably selected to be functional within thecells of the subject to be immunized.

Examples of promoters useful in the vaccines of the present invention,especially in the production of a genetic vaccine for humans, includebut are not limited to promoters from Simian Virus 40 (SV40), MouseMammary Tumor Virus (MMTV) promoter, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)such as the HIV Long Terminal Repeat (LTR) promoter, Moloney virus,Cytomegalovirus (CMV) such as the CMV immediate early promoter, EpsteinBarr Virus (EBV), Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) as well as promoters fromhuman genes such as human actin, human myosin, human hemoglobin, humanmuscle creatine, and human metalothionein.

Examples of polyadenylation signals useful in the vaccines of thepresent invention, especially in the production of a genetic vaccine forhumans, include but are not limited to SV40 polyadenylation signals andLTR polyadenylation signals.

In addition to the regulatory elements required for DNA expression,other elements can also be included in the DNA molecule. Such additionalelements include enhancers. The enhancer can be, for example, humanactin, human myosin, human hemoglobin, human muscle creatine and viralenhancers such as those from CMV, RSV and EBV.

Regulatory sequences and codons are generally species dependent. Inorder to maximize protein production, the regulatory sequences andcodons are selected to be effective in the species to be immunized. Onehaving ordinary skill in the art can readily produce DNA constructs thatare functional in a given subject species.

The polynucleotide constructs utilized in the vaccines and transfectedcells of the present invention can be “naked” DNA as defined in Restifoet al. Gene Therapy 2000; 7:89-92, the pertinent disclosure of which isincorporated by reference. Preferably, the polynucleotide is a DNAoperably incorporated in a delivery vector. Useful delivery vectorsinclude biodegradable microcapsules, immuno-stimulating complexes(ISCOMs) or liposomes, and genetically engineered attenuated livevectors such as viruses or bacteria.

Examples of suitable attenuated live bacterial vectors includeSalmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi, Shigella species, Bacillusspecies, Lactobacillus species, Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG),Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter species, or any othersuitable bacterial vector, as is known in the art. Preferably the vectoris an attenuated live Salmonella typhimurium vector. Most preferably,the vector is a doubly attenuated aroA⁻ dam⁻ S. typhimurium. Methods oftransforming live bacterial vectors with an exogenous polynucleotideconstruct are well described in the art. See, for example, JosephSambrook and David W. Russell, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual,3rd Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.(2001) (Sambrook and Russell).

Preferred viral vectors include Bacteriophages, Herpes virus,Adenovirus, Polio virus, Vaccinia virus, and Avipox. Methods oftransforming viral vector with an exogenous polynucleotide construct arealso well described in the art. See, for example, Sambrook and Russell,above.

Liposome vectors are unilamellar or multilamellar vesicles, having amembrane portion formed of lipophilic material and an interior aqueousportion. The aqueous portion is used in the present invention to containthe polynucleotide material to be delivered to the target cell. It isgenerally preferred that the liposome forming materials have a cationicgroup, such as a quaternary ammonium group, and one or more lipophilicgroups, such as saturated or unsaturated alkyl groups having about 6 toabout 30 carbon atoms. One group of suitable materials is described inEuropean Patent Publication No. 0187702, and further discussed in U.S.Pat. No. 6,228,844 to Wolff et al., the pertinent disclosures of whichare incorporated by reference. Many other suitable liposome-formingcationic lipid compounds are described in the literature. See, e.g., L.Stamatatos, et al., Biochemistry 1988; 27:3917-3925; and H. Eibl, etal., Biophysical Chemistry 1979; 10:261-271. Alternatively, amicrosphere such as a polylactide-coglycolide biodegradable microspherecan be utilized. A polynucleotide construct is encapsulated or otherwisecomplexed with the liposome or microsphere for delivery of thepolynucleotide to a tissue, as is known in the art.

The method aspect of the present invention involves administeringpolynucleotides to the tissues of a mammal, such as a human, to elicitan immune response against cancer cells. In some preferred embodiments,the polynucleotides are administered orally, intramuscularly,intranasally, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously, intradermally, ortopically. Preferably the vaccine is administered orally.

A DNA vaccine effective for eliciting an immune response against tumorcells comprises a polynucleotide construct that operably encodes a Fra-1protein and the cytokine IL-18, an immune stimulating molecule thatinduces interferon-γ production by T cells and NK cells.

Without being bound by theory, it is believed that vaccination of apatient, such as a human patient, with a vaccine of the invention leadsto selective expression of the Fra-1 protein and the IL-18 in cancerouscells. Increased presentation of the Fra-1 protein on the cancer cellsurface, in combination with expression of immune stimulating IL-18,leads to an enhanced immune response against tumor cells that expressFra-1 proteins, such as breast cancer cells. Preferably thepolynucleotide construct encodes a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein.Polyubiquitination of the Fra-1 protein is believed to target the Fra-1protein to the proteosome, where the antigen can be degraded andprocessed, to be presented as a MHC class I antigen complex.

In a preferred method, a DNA vaccine can be utilized to provide longterm inhibition of tumor growth in a patient treated with the vaccine.The DNA vaccine comprises a polynucleotide construct operably encoding aFra-1 protein, such as a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein, IL-18, and apharmaceutically acceptable carrier therefor. The vaccine isadministered to a mammal in need of inhibition tumor growth in an amountthat is sufficient to elicit an immune response against tumor cells.

Preferably, the mammal treated with a vaccine of the present inventionis a human. A patient suffering from cancer, such as lung or coloncarcinoma, breast tumors, or prostate tumors, and the like cancers, canbenefit from immunization by the vaccines of the present invention. Mostpreferably the patient is a human patient suffering from breast canceror an increased risk of breast cancer.

Vaccines of the present invention preferably are formulated withpharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients such as water,saline, dextrose, glycerol, and the like, as well as combinationsthereof. The vaccines can also contain auxiliary substances such aswetting agents, emulsifying agents, buffers, adjuvants, and the like.

The vaccines of the present invention are preferably administered orallyto a mammal, such as a human, as a solution or suspension in apharmaceutically acceptable carrier, at a nucleic acid concentration inthe range of about 1 to about 10 micrograms per milliliter. Theappropriate dosage will depend upon the subject to be vaccinated, and inpart upon the judgment of the medical practitioner administering orrequesting administration of the vaccine.

The vaccines of the present invention can be packaged in suitablysterilized containers such as ampules, bottles, or vials, either inmulti-dose or in unit dosage forms. The containers are preferablyhermetically sealed after being filled with a vaccine preparation.Preferably, the vaccines are packaged in a container having a labelaffixed thereto, which label identifies the vaccine, and bears a noticein a form prescribed by a government agency such as the United StatesFood and Drug Administration reflecting approval of the vaccine underappropriate laws, dosage information, and the like. The label preferablycontains information about the vaccine that is useful to an health careprofessional administering the vaccine to a patient. The package alsopreferably contains printed informational materials relating to theadministration of the vaccine, instructions, indications, and anynecessary required warnings.

The human FRA-1 nucleic acid sequence and its corresponding proteinsequence have been reported by Wang et al. in the GENBANK® database ofthe National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library ofMedicine, Bethesda, Md., DNA Accession No. NM 005438, the disclosures ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference. The murine FRA-1polynucleotide sequence and its corresponding protein sequence have beenreported by Strauseberg et al. in the GENBANK® database of the NationalCenter for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine,Bethesda, Md., DNA Accession No. BC052917, the disclosures of which areincorporated herein by reference.

The reported nucleic acid sequence encoding human Fra-1 (SEQ ID NO: 1),and its corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) are provided inFIG. 10. The nucleic acid sequence encoding murine Fra-1(SEQ ID NO: 3),utilized in the Examples, and its corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQID NO: 4) are provided in FIG. 11.

The reported nucleic acid sequence encoding human IL-18 (SEQ ID NO: 5),and its corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) are provided inFIG. 12. The nucleic acid sequence encoding murine IL-18 (SEQ ID NO: 7),utilized in the Examples, and its corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQID NO: 8) are provided in FIG. 13.

Preferably, the vaccines for the present invention comprisepolynucleotide constructs that encode a Fra-1 protein, such as humanFra-1, murine Fra-1, and functional homologs thereof. The functionalhomologs preferably share at least about 70% amino acid sequenceidentity with the aforementioned proteins, more preferably at leastabout 80% amino acid sequence identity, most preferably at least about90% amino acid sequence identity. Most preferably, the polynucleotideconstructs encode a polyubiquitinated Fra-1 protein.

Ubiquitin is a highly conserved protein common to many mammalian speciesincluding humans, mice and rats. The nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:9) encoding ubiquitin and its corresponding amino acid sequence (SEQ IDNO: 10) are shown in FIG. 14.

Preferably, the vaccines for the present invention comprisepolynucleotide constructs that encode IL-18, such as human IL-18, murineIL-18, and functional homologs thereof. The functional homologspreferably share at least about 70% amino acid sequence identity withthe aforementioned IL-18 proteins, more preferably at least about 80%amino acid sequence identity, most preferably at least about 90% aminoacid sequence identity.

Interleukin-12 (also know as NK cell stimulatory factor) is a 70,000dalton molecular weight heterodimeric cytokine protein comprising p40and p35 chains that activates NK cells and induces CD4 T celldifferentiation to Th1-like cells. IL-12 plays an important role in avariety of immune responses. Optionally, the vaccines of the presentinvention can comprise a polynucleotide construct that operably encodesIL-12, which is an immune stimulating molecule.

Due to the inherent degeneracy of the genetic code, a polynucleotidethat encodes substantially the same or a functionally equivalent aminoacid sequences to native (i.e., naturally occurring) Fra-1 protein,IL-18, or IL-12 can be used in the vaccines of the invention. Suchpolynucleotides include those which are capable of hybridizing to thenative Fra-1, IL-18, or IL-12 DNA sequence, as well as allelic variantsthereof, and the like. Preferably the polynuceotide of the functionallyequivalent homologs share at least about 70% nucleic acid sequenceidentity with the DNA encoding the aforementioned native Fra-1, IL-18 orIL-12 proteins, more preferably at least about 80% nucleic acid sequenceidentity, most preferably at least about 90% nucleic acid sequenceidentity.

Altered nucleic acid sequences that can be used in accordance with theinvention include deletions, additions or substitutions of differentnucleotide residues resulting in a sequence that encodes the same or afunctionally equivalent gene product. The gene product itself maycontain deletions, additions or substitutions of amino acid residueswithin the Fra-1 protein, IL-18 or IL-12, which result in a silentchange, thus producing a functionally equivalent molecule. Such aminoacid substitutions (e.g., conservative substitutions) may be made on thebasis of similarity in polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity,hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues involved.For example, negatively charged amino acids include aspartic acid andglutamic acid; positively charged amino acids include lysine andarginine; amino acids with uncharged polar head groups having similarhydrophilicity values include the following: leucine, isoleucine,valine; glycine, alanine; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine;phenylalanine, tyrosine.

As used herein, a functionally equivalent Fra-1 protein refers to apolypeptide having substantially the same transcription inducingactivity as its counterpart naturally occurring Fra-1 protein. Afunctionally equivalent immune stimulating gene product, such as IL-18or IL-12 refers to a polypeptide having substantially the sameimmunomodulating activity as its counterpart naturally occurring immunestimulating gene product.

The nucleic acid sequences encoding the Fra-1 protein and the immunestimulating gene products (e.g., IL-18 and IL-12) useful in the vaccinesof the invention may be engineered to alter the coding sequences for avariety of purposes including, but not limited to, alterations thatmodify processing and expression of the gene product. For example,mutations may be introduced using techniques that are well known in theart, e.g. site-directed mutagenesis, to insert new restriction sites, toalter glycosylation patterns, phosphorylation, and the like.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method of vaccinating amammal against cancer. The method comprises administering to the mammala vaccine of the present invention, as described herein, in an amountsufficient to elicit an immune response against cancer cells. Preferablythe mammal is a human.

In another aspect, the present invention also encompasses transformedhost cells, which have been transfected with a vector comprising apolynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein, IL-18, andoptionally, IL-12, as described herein. The host cell can be aprokaryotic cell or a eukaryotic cell. Preferably the host cell istransformed with a polynucleotide construct encoding a polyubiquitinatedFra-1 protein.

The present invention also provides isolated plasmid vectors comprisinga polynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein (e.g., apolyubiquitinated Fra-1), IL-18, and optionally, IL-12. The vectors areuseful for transfecting host cells, such as attenuated bacterial cells,for preparing the vaccines of the invention.

The following examples are provided to further illustrate the featuresand embodiments of the present invention, and are not meant to belimiting.

Animals, Bacterial Strains and Cell Lines.

Female Balb/c mice, 6-8 weeks of age, were purchased from The ScrippsResearch Institute Rodent Breeding Facility. The attenuated S.typhimurium strain RE88 (aroA⁻ dam⁻) was kindly provided by RemedyneCorporation, (Santa Barbara, Calif.). Bacterial strain Top 10 waspurchased from Invitrogen, (Carlsbad, Calif.) and bacteria were grownroutinely at about 37° C. in LB broth or on agar plates (EM SCIENCE,Darmstadt, Germany), supplemented, when required, with about 50 μg/mlampicillin. The murine D2F2 breast cancer cell line was obtained fromATCC (American Type Culture Collection, USA) and cultured in Dulbecco'sModified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with about 10% (vol/vol)fetal bovine serum (FBS). All animal experiments were performedaccording to the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care andUse of Laboratory Animals.

EXAMPLE 1 Construction of Expression Vectors

Two constructs were made based on the pIRES vector (Invitrogen). Thefirst, pUb-Fra-1, encoded polyubiquitinated, full-length murineFos-related antigen-1 (Fra-1). The second, pIL-18, encoded murineInterleukin-18 (IL-18). The empty vectors with or without apolyubiquitin sequence, served as controls. Protein expression of Fra-1and IL-18 was demonstrated by Western blotting. IL-18 protein expressionwas found in both cell lysates and culture supernatants. The bioactivityof murine IL-18 in the cell supernatants was measured by an ELISA assay(RD systems, Minneapolis Minn.) using the production of IFN-γ in KG-1lymphoma cells as an indicator, as described by Kawashima, et al., 2001,Arthritis Rheum., 44: 550-560. The pUb-Fra-1 construct included themurine Fra-1 DNA sequence shown in FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 3) and fourrepeats of the ubiquitin DNA sequence shown in FIG. 14 (SEQ ID NO: 9).The pIL-18 construct included the murine IL-18 DNA sequence shown inFIG. 13 (SEQ ID NO: 7).

EXAMPLE 2 Transduction and Expression of S. typhimurium with DNA VaccinePlasmids

Attenuated Salmonella typhimurium (aroA⁻ dam⁻) were transduced with DNAvaccine plasmids by electroporation. Briefly, a single colony ofbacteria was inoculated into about 3 ml of Luria-Bertani (LB) medium,and then harvested during mid-log phase growth and washed twice withice-cold water. Freshly prepared bacteria (about 1×10⁸) were then mixedwith plasmid DNA (about 2 μg) on ice in a 0.2 cm cuvette andelectroporated at about 2.5 KV, 25 μF, and 200 Ω. The bacteria weretransformed with the following plasmids: empty vector, pUb, pUb-Fra-1,pIL-18 or both pUb-Fra-1 and pIL-18 together, indicated aspUb-Fra-1/pIL-18. After electroporation, the bacteria were immediatelyremoved from the cuvette and placed into a sterile culture tubecontaining about 1 ml of LB broth medium and incubated with moderateshaking for about 30 minutes at about 37° C. The bacteria werecentrifuged and then plated onto LB plates with about 50 μg/mlampicillin. Resistant colonies harboring the DNA vaccine gene(s) werecultured and stored at about −70° C. after confirmation of the codingsequence.

EXAMPLE 3 Detection of EGFP Expression

Enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) expression by aroA⁻ dam⁻ S.typhimurium was used to obtain direct evidence for DNA transfer from thebacterial carrier to Peyer's Patches and to establish that proteinexpression took place efficiently and successfully. EGFP expression wastested using the doubly attenuated strain S. typhimurium harboring thegene (S.T-GFP). Mice were administered about 1×10⁸ bacteria by oralgavage, and about 24 hours thereafter, these animals were sacrificed andbiopsies collected from the small intestine washed thoroughly withphosphate buffered saline (PBS). The fresh specimens were checked forEGFP expression in Peyer's Patches by confocal microscopy or saved forfurther hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. The results are shown inFIG. 1D.

EXAMPLE 4 Protein Detection by Western Blotting

To detect protein production, COS-7 cells were transfected with thepUb-Fra-1 or pIL-18 plasmid using a calcium phosphate transfection kitbased on the manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). After about 24hours, the cells were harvested and lysed and protein concentrationswere determined with a BCA kit (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.). Protein (about30 μg) of each sample was purified by electrophoresis on 16%Tris-Glycine gels and then transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes(Invitrogen) that were subjected to about 150 mA for about 30 minutes.Membranes were blocked for about 2 hours by about 5% nonfat dry milk inPBS containing about 0.2% Tween 20. Western blot analysis was performedwith anti-Fra-1 Ab (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, Calif.) oranti-mouse IL-18 mAb (MBL, Nagoya, Japan). Films were developed using achemiluminescence protocol provided by the manufacturer (Pierce,Rockford, Ill.). The results are shown in FIG. 1B.

EXAMPLE 5 Oral Immunization and Tumor Cell Challenge

Balb/c mice were divided into five experimental groups (n=8) andimmunized three times at two week intervals by oral gavage with about100 μl PBS containing about 1×10⁸ doubly mutated S. typhimuriumharboring either empty vector, pUb, pUb-Fra-1, pIL-18 orpUb-Fra-l/pIL-18 as prepared in Example 2. All mice were challengedsubcutaneously into the right flank with a lethal dose of about 1×10⁶D2F2 breast cancer cells or by intravenous injection with about 0.5×10⁶of D2F2 cells about 1 week after the last immunization to induce primarytumor or experimental pulmonary metastases, respectively. In thesubcutaneous tumor model, mice were examined twice each week until thetumor became palpable, after which its diameter was measured in twodimensions with a microcaliper every other day. In the pulmonarymetastases model, mice were sacrificed about 4 weeks after intravenousinjection. Metastasis scores were determined as percentage of lungsurface covered by fused metastases as follows: a score of 0=0%, a scoreof 1=less than about 20%, a score of 2=about 20 to about 50%, a score of3=greater than about 50%. The results are shown in FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B.

EXAMPLE 6 Cytotoxicity Assay

Cytotoxicity was measured by a standard ⁵¹Cr-release assay. Splenocyteswere harvested from Balb/c mice about 2 weeks after challenge with about0.5×10⁶ D2F2 breast carcinoma cells and subsequently cultured for about3 days at about 37° C. in complete T-STIM culture medium (BecktonDickinson, Bedford, Mass.). Both D2F2 and Yac-1 cells were used astargets. These cells were each labeled with about 0.5 mCi of ⁵¹Cr, andincubated at about 37° C. for about 4 hours with effector cells atvarious effector to target cell ratios. The percentage of specifictarget cell lysis was calculated with the formula [(E-S)/(T-S)]×100%,where E is the average experimental release, S is the averagespontaneous release, and T is the average total release. The results areshown in FIG. 3.

EXAMPLE 7 Flow Cytometric Analysis

Activation markers of T cells and NK cells as well as CD80 (B 7.1) andCD86 (B 7.2) costimulatory molecules were measured by two-color flowcytometric analysis with a BD Biosciences FACScan. T cell activation wasdetermined by staining freshly isolated splenocytes from successfullyvaccinated mice with anti-CD8-FITC or anti-CD3-FITC Ab in combinationwith PE-conjugated anti-CD25, CD11a, CD28 or CD69 Ab. Activation of NKcell markers was measured with FITC-labeled anti-NK-1.1 Ab incombination with PE-conjugated anti-DX5 Ab. Costimulatory molecules onAPCs were detected by PE-conjugated anti-CD80 or CD 86 Ab in combinationwith FITC-labeled CD11c Ab. All reagents were obtained from BDPharmingen (La Jolla, Calif.). The results are shown in FIGS. 4, 5, and6.

EXAMPLE 8 Cytokine Release Assay

Flow cytometry was utilized for detection of intracellular cytokines andthe ELISPOT assay to measure single cell cytokine release. To this end,splenocytes were collected about 2 weeks after D2F2 tumor cell challengefrom all experimental groups of mice, and culture for about 24 hours incomplete T cell medium with irradiated D2F2 cells as described.Preincubated cells were suspended with about 1 μg purified 2.4G2 Ab (BDPharmingen) to block nonspecific staining. The cells were washed andthen stained with about 0.5 μg FITC conjugated anti-CD3⁺ Ab. Afterwashing two times, cells were fixed and stained with about 1 μg/ml PEconjugated with anti-IL2 or anti-IFN-γ Ab for flow cytometric analysis.All Ab were obtained from BD Pharmingen. Immunospot plates (BDBioscience, San Diego, Calif.) were coated overnight at about 4° C. withcapture Ab specific for either IFN-γ or IL-2. The plates were thenblocked with FBS (about 10% in RPMI 1640 culture medium). D2F2 cells(about 1×10⁴/ml) were irradiated with about 1000 Gy, plated andstimulated with mitogen. Splenocytes were collected about 2 weeks afterintravenous D2F2 tumor cell challenge from all experimental groups ofmice, and were plated in complete RPMI 1640 medium (about 1×10⁶/ml,Hyclone). After overnight incubation, the cells were washed, first withdeionized water, and then with washing buffer. Thereafter, Avidin-HRP(about 1:100) was added following incubation with biotinylatedanti-mouse IFN-γ Ab (about 2 μg/ml) and IL-2 (about 2 μg/ml). The spotswere developed with AEC development solution, and plates read byIMMUNOSPOT® Sc Analysis (BD Bioscience). Digitalized images wereanalyzed for areas in which color density exceeded background by anamount based on a comparison of experimental wells. The results areshown in FIGS. 7, 8A and 8B.

EXAMPLE 9 Evaluation of Anti-Angiogenic Effects

Balb/c mice were vaccinated as described above in Example 5. Two weeksafter the last vaccination, mice were subcutaneously injected in thesternal region with about 500 μl growth factor-reduced Matrigel (BDBiosciences) containing about 400 ng/ml murine FGF-2 (PeproTech, RockyHill, N.J.) and D2F2 tumor cells (about 1×10⁴/ml) which were irradiatedwith about 1000 Gy. In all mice, except for 2 control animals,endothelium tissue was stained about 6 days later by intravenousinjection into the lateral tail vein with about 200 μl of about 0.1mg/ml fluorescent Bandeiraea simplicifolia lectin I, Isolectin B4(Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.). About thirty minutes later,mice were sacrificed and Matrigel plugs excised and evaluatedmacroscopically. Lectin-FITC was then extracted from about 100 μg ofeach plug in about 500 μl of RIPA lysis buffer (PBS about 1% NP-40,about 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, about 0.1% SDS) with the help of atissue grinder. Solid materials were pelleted by centrifugation andlectin-FITC content in the buffer quantified by fluorimetry at about 490nm. Background fluorescence found in the two non-injected control micewas subtracted in each case. The results are shown in FIG. 9.

Discussion.

Eukaryotic expression vectors based on the pIRES vector backbone, namelypUb-Fra-1 and pIL-18 (FIG. 1A) were prepared. Protein expression ofpUb-Fra-1 and pIL-18 was demonstrated by transient transfection of eachvector into COS-7 cells, and by performing Western blots on therespective cell lysates (pUb-Fra-1 or pIL-18) and supernatants (pIL-18)with anti-Fra-1 and anti-IL-18 Ab. The results indicated that allconstructs produced protein of the expected molecular mass with IL-18being expressed in its active form at 18 kD (FIG. 1B, lane 2) and Fra-1as a 46 KDa protein (FIG. 1B, lane 1). Protein expression of IL-18 wasalso detected in the culture supernatant of transfected cells (FIG. 1B,lane 3). Importantly, the biofunctional activity of IL-18 wasdemonstrated by ELISA in supernatants of cells transfected with pIL-18.(FIG. 1C).

DNA encoding pUb-Fra-1 and pIL-18 was successfully released from theattenuated bacterial vaccines of the present invention and enteredPeyer's Patches in the small intestine (FIG. 1D) to be subsequentlytranscribed by APCs, processed in the proteasome and presented asMHC-peptide complexed to T cells. To this end, mice were administered byoral gavage about 1×10⁸ dam⁻, aroA⁻ attenuated S. typhimurium harboringa polyubiquitinated Fra-1 polynucleotide and an IL-18 polynucleotide, aswell as various control vaccines. After about 24 hours these animalswere sacrificed and biopsies were collected from the thoroughly washedsmall intestine. In fact, the doubly attenuated bacteria harboring EGFP(S.T-GFP) exhibited strong EGFP fluorescence (FIG. 1D), suggesting notonly that such bacteria can transfer a target gene to Peyer's Patches,but also that plasmids encoding each individual gene can successfullyexpress their respective proteins. Importantly, because of the aroA⁻dam⁻ mutation, these doubly attenuated bacteria do not survive very longsince neither EGFP activity nor live bacteria could be detected inimmunized animals after about 72 hours. However, EGFP expression wasdetected in adherent cells, most likely APCs such as DCs and macrophagesfrom Peyer's Patches following oral administration of Salmonellatyphimurium harboring the eukaryotic EGFP expression plasmid. Takentogether, these findings suggest that both plasmid transfer to andprotein expression in eukaryotic cells did take place.

An administered DNA vaccine encoding murine Ub-Fra-1 and secretoryIL-18, carried by attenuated S. typhimurium, induces protective immunityagainst subcutaneous tumor growth and pulmonary metastasis of D2F2breast carcinoma. A marked inhibition was observed for both subcutaneoustumor growth and disseminated pulmonary metastases in Balb/c micechallenged about 1 week after the third vaccination with thepUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 vaccine of the invention by either intravenous (FIG.2A) or subcutaneous (FIG. 2B) injection of D2F2 murine breast cancercells. In contrast, animals vaccinated with only the empty vector(pIRES) or the vector encoding only ubiquitin (pUb), carried byattenuated bacteria, all uniformly revealed rapid subcutaneous tumorgrowth and extensive dissemination of pulmonary metastases. Importantly,the life span of about 60% of successfully vaccinated Balb/c mice (5/8)was tripled in the absence of any detectable tumor growth up to about 11weeks after tumor cell challenge (FIG. 2C).

Immunization with a DNA vaccine of the invention induces tumor-specificimmunity capable of killing breast cancer cells in vitro either by MHCclass I Ag-restricted CD8⁺T cells or by NK cells. To this end, CD8⁺Tcells were isolated from splenocytes of groups of Balb/c mice vaccinatedas described above. The data depicted in FIG. 3 indicate that only CD8⁺Tcells isolated from splenocytes of mice immunized with the vaccine ofthe invention encoding pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 were effective in killing D2F2breast cancer cells in vitro at different effector-to-target cellratios. In contrast, controls such as CD8⁺T cells isolated from miceimmunized with only the empty vector vaccines carried by attenuated S.typhimurium produced solely background levels of tumor cell lysis (FIG.3). The CD8⁺T cell-mediated killing of D2F2 cells was specific asdemonstrated by the fact that syngeneic prostate cancer target cells(RM-2) lacking Fra-1 were not lysed. Importantly, the CD8⁺Tcell-mediated tumor cell lysis was MHC class I antigen-restricted asevidenced by addition of about 10 μg/ml of anti-H-2K^(d)/H-2D^(d) Ab,which specifically inhibited lysis of D2F2 cells (FIG. 3).

NK cells were involved in tumor cell killing, as demonstrated by astandard 4 hour ⁵¹ Cr-release assay using NK-specific Yac-1 cells astargets for splenocytes from Balb/c mice immunized and challenged withD2F2 breast cancer cells. Only immunization with the vaccine of theinvention containing pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 or a vaccine containing pIL-18alone led to significant lysis of Yac-1 target cells by NK cells. Incontrast, control immunizations were ineffective (FIG. 3).

The interaction between IL-18 and active Th1 cells and NK cells isimportant for achieving both optimal antigen specific T cell and NK cellresponses.

The vaccines harboring either pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 or pIL-18 aloneupregulated the expression of T and NK cell activation markers,respectively. This was evident from an increase in expression of CD25,the high affinity IL-2R α-chain, CD69, an early T cell activationantigen, and CD11a, which is important for the initial interactionbetween cells and DCs as well as regular T cell markers CD4⁺ and CD8⁺(FIG. 4). Additionally, it has been reported that NK cells play apartial role in the process of anti-tumor immune response. For thatreason, spleen cells obtained from mice successfully immunized with DNAvaccines along with the control groups were assayed with anti-DX5. Asshown in FIG. 5, this regimen dramatically increased the DX5 expressionon NK cells, which is especially important for NK cytotoxity.

Furthermore, T cell activation is dependent on up-regulated expressionof costimulatory molecules CD80 (B 7.1) and CD86 (B 7.2) on DCs toachieve optimal ligation with CD28 expressed on T cells. In this regard,FACS analyses of splenocytes obtained from syngeneic BALB/c mice,successfully immunized with a DNA vaccine of the invention clearlydemonstrated upregulation of CD80 and CD86 expression by about 2- to3-fold over controls (FIG. 6).

The release of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ from T cells isa well-known indication of T cell activation in secondary lymphoidtissues. Consequently, IL-2 and IFN-γ release was measured bothintracellularly with flow cytometry (FIG. 7), and at the single celllevel with ELISPOT (FIG. 8) in vaccinated mice. Vaccination with thepUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 containing vaccine of the invention and subsequentchallenge with tumor cells resulted in a dramatic increase of IFN-γ andIL-2 release over that of splenocytes from animals vaccinated withcontrol vaccines by both analysis methods.

Distinct suppression of angiogenesis was induced by the pUb-Fra-l/pIL-18DNA vaccine of the invention in a Matrigel assay. This was evident fromthe marked decrease in vascularization following vaccination, asevaluated by relative fluorescence after in vivo staining of endotheliumwith FITC-conjugated lectin. Differences were visible macroscopically,as shown in FIG. 9 depicting representative examples of Matrigel plugsremoved from vaccinated mice about 6 days after their injection.FITC-lectin staining clearly revealed suppression of angiogenesisindicated by a significantly decreased vascularization of Matrigel plugsafter vaccination with the pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18-containing vaccine of theinvention and to a somewhat lesser extent with a pIL-18-containingvaccine alone, but not with vaccines encoding only pUb-Fra-1, pUb or theempty vector control (FIG. 9).

The design of effective cancer vaccines remains a major challenge fortumor immunotherapy. The vaccines of the present invention meet thischallenge by providing a novel DNA vaccine encoding a transcriptionfactor, Fra-1, which is overexpressed in breast cancer and reported tobe significantly associated with invasion and growth of this neoplasm incombination with an immune system stimulating molecule IL-18. Thepresent results demonstrate that peripheral T cell tolerance against theFra-1 transcription factor can be broken by an oral DNA vaccine encodingfull length murine Fra-1, fused with mutant polyubiquitin, and furthermodified by co-transformation with a gene encoding secretory murineIL-18.

The immunological mechanisms and effector cells involved in the tumorprotective immunity induced by the vaccines of the present inventionclearly indicate a prominent cellular immune response by both T and NKcells. Activation of immune effector cells is highly correlated withupregulation of IFN-γ. In fact, the regulation of IFN-γ expression isone of the most tightly controlled processes of the cellular immuneresponse. Production of IFN-γ, was induced by the DNA vaccines of thepresent invention, and was found to be substantially limited toactivated CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, as well as NK cells. For each of thesecell types, IFN-γ secretion is further moderated by the availability ofIFN-γ inducing cytokines such as IL-2, IL-12 and TNF-α, which arise fromaccessory cells following activation. IL-18 reportedly is a potentantiangiogenic cytokine, both in vitro and in vivo. Consequently, thevaccines of the invention were designed to express a combination ofFra-1 and secretory IL-18. Activation of both T- and NK cells wassignificantly augmented after immunization with the multi-functional DNAvaccine of the invention, as indicated by marked upregulation of aseries of T- and NK cell activation markers. The present datademonstrate that immunization with a pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 DNA vaccineinduces and enhances the expression of the costimulatory molecules CD80and CD86 on CD11c⁺ and MHC class II antigen positive APCs, suggestingthat the capability of these APCs for processing and presentation oftumor-specific antigen was significantly enhanced by the vaccine.

The marked elevation in production of proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γand IL-2 detected by intracellular cytokine staining and single cellcytokine release also demonstrated T cell activation after immunizationwith vaccines of the present invention. Upregulation of CD25 was alsoobserved together with increased production of IL-2 by activatedT-cells. Tumor angiogenesis was found to be effectively suppressed onlyin groups of mice that were immunized with the pUb-Fra-1/pIL-18 vaccineof the invention and to a lesser extent with pIL-18 alone in the D2F2breast cancer model as indicated by suppression of vessel formation andregression of growing blood vessels.

Successful stimulation of effective CD8⁺T cell-mediated MHC class 1antigen-restricted tumor protective immunity with the oral DNA vaccineof the invention was most likely aided by ubiquitination leading to moreeffective antigen presentation. A DNA vaccine encoding murine Fra-1lacking in ubiquitin was less effective in inducing tumor protectiveimmunity than the vaccine expressing ubiquitinated Fra-1.

An important aspect of DNA vaccine design is the selection of anoptimally effective carrier to deliver the target gene to the immunesystem. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the vaccine as targetedto secondary lymphoid organs, such as Peyer's Patches, in the smallintestine. This approach is designed to achieve a non-invasiveadministration of the vaccine, as well as long-term protection by singleor multiple vaccinations. In addition, oral vaccines can have theadvantage of ease of preparation, storage, and transport. In thisregard, live, attenuated bacterial carriers that harbor polynucleotidesencoding an antigen, combined with a powerful adjuvants, are attractivevehicles or oral delivery of vaccines. Current DNA vaccine deliveryvehicles include replicating attenuated strains of intracellularbacteria like Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes andMycobacterium bovis as well as Bacillus Calmette Gurein (BCG). These DNAvaccine delivery vehicles have been reported to induce a broad spectrumof both mucosal and systemic immune responses. Moreover, the use of thisnatural route of entry could prove to be of benefit since many bacteria,like Salmonella, egress from the gut lumen via M cells into Peyer'sPatches and migrate even eventually into lymph nodes and spleen, thusallowing natural targeting of DNA vaccines to inductive sites of theimmune system.

A particularly effective attenuated bacterial vector for oral deliveryis a novel, doubly mutated strain of S. typhimurium (dam⁻, aroA⁻). Thisstrain of bacteria provides a number of advantages over other attenuatedbacterial strains. For example, DNA adenine methylase (dam⁻) mutants ofS. typhimurium have been reported to be highly attenuated and useful aslive vaccines in a murine model of infection. Additionally, dam⁻ mutantsdo not cause a transient state of nonspecific immune suppression,indicating their potential usefulness as a vaccine carrier to deliverheterologous antigens to immune inductive sites. Although dam⁻ mutantsreportedly are unable to cause disease in mice, transient bacteria havereportedly remained after several weeks in terminal organs. Thus, inorder to completely abolish the systemic presence of the bacteria, asecond mutation (aroA⁻) was introduced, which inhibits the synthesis ofaromatic amino acids and causes the bacteria to die after just a fewpassages. The dam⁻ aroA⁻ double mutant, which was undetectable insystemic tissues, indicating a safer and less toxic Salmonella, wasconsequently chosen as a preferred vaccine carrier.

By using doubly mutated bacteria as a vaccine carrier, Fra-1 antigentargets appropriate pathways of major histocompatibility (MHC) class Iantigen processing and presentation. In addition, an adequate cytokinemilieu is generated upon vaccination, which effectively promotesantigen-specific responses. The most prominent advantage of this vaccinecarrier vehicle is its capability to directly target DNA vaccines toPeyer's Patches, which harbor immature dendritic cells (DCs), B cells, Tcells and macrophages. These immune system cells are important immuneeffector cells necessary for an immune response induced by a DNAvaccine. Among these cells, DCs are important antigen presenting cellsthat efficiently mediate antigen processing, transport and presentationto lymphoid tissues for the initiation of T cell responses.

Taken together, the present results demonstrate that the transcriptionfactor, Fra-1, is a suitable target for induction of a T cell-mediatedspecific immune response against breast cancer cells and that the designof a DNA vaccine, lead to effective antigen processing and presentation.The co-expression of secretory IL-18 by the vaccines of the presentinvention acts as a powerful and natural adjuvant for further activationof both CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells as well as NK cells, leading to theproduction of IFN-γ and IL-2 as well as the suppression of angiogenesisin tumor tissues.

Numerous variations and modifications of the embodiments described abovecan be effected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novelfeatures of the invention. It is to be understood that no limitationswith respect to the specific embodiments illustrated herein are intendedor should be inferred. It is, of course, intended to cover by theappended claims all such modifications as fall within the scope of theclaims.

1. A DNA vaccine suitable for eliciting an immune response againstcancer cells that overexpress Fra-1, the vaccine comprising apolynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein and IL-18 ina pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 2. The DNA vaccine of claim 1wherein the polynucleotide construct is operably incorporated in avector.
 3. The DNA vaccine of claim 2 wherein the vector is anattenuated bacterial vector.
 4. The DNA vaccine of claim 3 wherein theattenuated bacterial vector is selected from the group consisting ofattenuated Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi, Shigella, Bacillus,Lactobacillus, BCG, Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, andCampylobacter.
 5. The DNA vaccine of claim 1 wherein the polynucleotideconstruct encodes a Fra-1 protein having an amino acid sequence selectedfrom the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 2 and SEQ ID NO:
 4. 6. The DNAvaccine of claim 1 wherein the polynucleotide construct encodes IL-18having an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQID NO: 6 and SEQ ID NO:
 8. 7. The DNA vaccine of claim 1 wherein thepolynucleotide construct comprises a polynucleotide encoding a human ormurine Fra-1 protein, and having a nucleic acid sequence selected fromthe group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:
 3. 8. The DNAvaccine of claim 1 wherein the polynucleotide construct comprises apolynucleotide encoding a human or murine IL-18, and having a nucleicacid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 5 and SEQID NO:
 7. 9. The DNA vaccine of claim 1 wherein the polynucleotideconstruct further encodes IL-12.
 10. The DNA vaccine of claim 1 whereinthe polynucleotide construct comprises an Fra-1 polynucleotide having anucleic acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:1, and SEQ ID NO: 3 and an IL-18 polynucleotide having a nucleic acidsequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 5, and SEQ IDNO:
 7. 11. A method of inhibiting tumor growth in a mammal having aFra-1 overexpressing tumor and comprising the step of administering tothe mammal an effective immunological response eliciting amount of a DNAvaccine comprising a polynucleotide construct operably encoding a Fra-1protein and IL-18 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, whereby themammal exhibits an immune response elicited by vaccine and specific totumor cells.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the polynucleotideconstruct encodes IL-18 having an amino acid sequence selected from thegroup consisting of SEQ ID NO: 6 and SEQ ID NO:
 8. 13. The method ofclaim 11 wherein the polynucleotide construct comprises a polynucleotideencoding a human or murine IL-18, and having a nucleic acid sequenceselected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 5 and SEQ ID NO:
 7. 14.The method of claim 11 wherein the mammal is a human.
 15. The method ofclaim 11 wherein the polynucleotide construct is operably incorporatedin an attenuated bacterial vector.
 16. The method of claim 15 whereinthe attenuated bacterial vector is selected from attenuated Salmonellatyphimurium, Salmonella typhi, Shigella, Bacillus, Lactobacillus, BCG,Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, and Campylobacter.
 17. The method ofclaim 15 wherein the vaccine is administered orally.
 18. An isolatedtransformed host cell transfected with a polynucleotide constructoperably encoding a Fra-1 protein and IL-18.
 19. A method of vaccinatinga mammal against a Fra-1 overexpressing cancer, the method comprisingthe step of administering to the mammal an effective immunologicalresponse eliciting amount of a DNA vaccine comprising a polynucleotideconstruct operably encoding a Fra-1 protein and IL-18 in apharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 20. The method of claim 19 whereinthe vaccine is administered orally.
 21. A method of delivery of geneticmaterial to a mammalian cell in vivo comprising orally administering toa mammal a polynucleotide construct operably encoding a therapeuticallyuseful gene product comprising a Fra-1 protein and IL-18.